Who Was Not at the Constitutional Convention?

Which well-known founders did not attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787? I mentioned a few in class but here are some details in writing.

Patrick Henry (of "give me liberty or give me death!" fame) said he "smelled a rat" in Philadelphia. He did not want a more effective, probably more powerful federal government.

John Adams was serving as ambassador to Great Britain, an extremely difficult job for the man who implied in the Declaration of Independence that the king was a pirate.

Thomas Jefferson was serving as ambassador to France, the other major power of the time. His views were represented most ably by James Madison (later called the Father of the Constitution).

Thomas Paine, author of Common Sense, was busy in Britain.

John Hancock was ill and did not serve as a Massachusetts delegate to the convention, but did serve in 1788 as president of his state's ratifying convention. His speech in favor of ratification drew the support of famed rabble-rouser Samuel Adams, and the Massachusetts convention narrowly approved the Constitution, 187 to 168.

Six people signed both the Declaration of Independence (in 1776) and the Constitution (in 1787):  George Clymer, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Morris, George Read, Roger Sherman, and James Wilson.

Were the Founders Christian?

Some were. Some were not, and for others the answer becomes more complex.

Washington was nominally an Episcopalian but did not attend services often and (scandalously) did not call for a minister on his deathbed as was the custom.

Jefferson and Franklin were Deists; they believed that God was benevolent but remote. They did not think that God intervened in his creation either much or at all and doubted the supernatural parts of the Bible. Jefferson created a version of the Gospels that matched his Enlightenment views, removing all supernatural events including the resurrection of Jesus.

John Adams was a Unitarian and a devout man, but Unitarians disagree with other Christians about the trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), arguing that God does not have three persons. Most Unitarians, then as now, would find Jesus admirable but not divine.

Other Founders were conventionally Christian; still others were irreligious.

Why write about this? On several occasions over the years, students have told me that America was founded by Christians and is a Christian nation. I cannot agree with the first statement, at least not without numerous exceptions. As for the second, America is a Christian nation, and a Jewish nation, and a Muslim nation, and a Buddhist nation, and a Hindu nation, and an atheist nation, and a nation of many other views, too.

If you think I’m anti-Christian, think again. See the First Amendment, written principally by Founder James Madison, which says that the government cannot interfere in the practice of religion, and that the government cannot endorse one religion over others. That provides a strong protection for religious practice, for Christians and everyone else.

This week, we’ve studied the Founding Fathers and the creation of the Constitution, a remarkable but certainly not perfect or holy or divinely-inspired document.

By the way, I hold religious views that are extremely important to me and I’m grateful to have been born in the United States where I can hold those views without interference and practice my faith without fear.

A Rare Southern Victory

On Feb. 14, 1779, 340 American troops under Col. Andrew Pickens defeated a force of Loyalist soldiers about twice their number in a rare Southern victory at Kettle Creek in Georgia. This small battle was won largely because the pro-British (Loyalist) commander, Col. James Boyd, fell wounded during the fight and his men fell into a disorganized retreat. American forces then moved forwarded and partially surrounded them. About 70 Loyalist troops died and 70 were captured; American losses were much lighter. Col. Boyd died shortly after the battle.

This minor battle demonstrates that many in the American colonies, especially in the South, were not sympathetic to the Revolution, and many units of Loyalist (pro-British American) militia formed. It’s also a window into the chaotic conditions in the South late in the war; the British could not keep control over the backwoods in the South, but the Americans only rarely bested them in battles and skirmishes in this period.

The tide would turn in Virginia late in the war.

A Famous Win (Loss)

Many people have heard of the Battle of Bunker Hill in the Revolutionary War. However, many mistakenly believe that this battle which occurred just outside of Boston was an American win. Here are just a few facts about it.

1) The battle was fought on June 17, 1775, early in the war, and was a critical moment in the struggle for control of Boston.

2) The battlefield included Bunker Hill, but most of the fighting actually happened on nearby Breed's Hill.

3) Though the Americans inflicted enormous casualties on the British (over a thousand killed and wounded), they lost the battle. It was a close thing, but the British retained the better position in the field at the end.

4) Col. William Prescott, one of the American commanders, reportedly told his men, "Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes." This line, which may be apocryphal (legendary rather than factual), has become quite famous. Historians have found versions of this statement that were much earlier than its use in this battle.

5) The loss meant that the British tightened their control of the major port city of Boston. They also captured five American cannon, a major acquisition. The Americans also lost about 450 men (killed and wounded).

6) The win was costly for the British, however. They lost an unusually high number of officers, whose expertise would be missed in later battles. The British also altered their strategy following this close battle, becoming more cautious—an attitude that the Americans would later exploit.

The Swamp Fox

Meet Gen. Francis Marion, nicknamed the Swamp Fox, who drove the British crazy in South Carolina late in the Revolutionary War, even after they had established dominance there. He is considered by many historians one of the first military figures to develop guerrilla warfare tactics (the term “guerilla” originated in Napoleon’s era, later). Gen. Marion was essentially a forerunner of special operations, handled today by groups such as the Army Rangers and Navy Seals.

Marion did this by striking at British forces with small groups and quickly withdrawing into local swamps. One opponent, Col. Banastre Tarleton, was sent to capture or kill him in 1780 but finally gave up, saying, "[a]s for this damned old fox, the Devil himself could not catch him." Thus Marion received his nickname. For his accomplishments he was thanked by Congress and finally recognized by the military establishment that had largely ignored him early in the war.

Historians have had to work especially hard to find out about the real Francis Marion because an early biographer, Parson Weems (who also wrote about other founding figures including Washington), was known to invent stories that had little or no basis in fact. For an update about Marion's true accomplishments, check the article "The Swamp Fox," by Amy Crawford, in Smithsonian Magazine--Smithsonian.com, July 1,2007: 

         http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/fox.html 

The French and Indian War in Brief

Backtracking slightly, here's a bit more coverage of the French and Indian War. Its conclusion was where our late colonial period coverage began, but it's helpful to know what happened. It ended in 1763.

Below, the portrait of Washington, who fought in this war, was painted by Charles Wilson Peale about 12 years after his service but does show him in the uniform he wore then. The other visuals provide basic information and a map (no maps in Zinn).

More on the Boston Massacre

Here's a bit more background on the Boston Massacre from The American Experience website. That program on PBS explores American history and biography.

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The Boston Massacre

Since the Stamp Act of 1765, street violence in Boston had become commonplace. Riots and protests had been instrumental in securing the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766. Street protests continued on through the late 1760s. Customs officials in the colonies pleaded with the British crown to send soldiers to maintain order. By October 1768 Boston was home to 4,000 British troops, about a quarter of the city's population.

A Hostile Situation
Hostility toward the soldiers escalated. Not only did the colonists object to their presence, but now "the Redcoats" or "lobsterbacks," as the soldiers were commonly known, were taking jobs from Boston's workers. Low wages had led many soldiers to secure part-time jobs in their off-duty hours. They further antagonized many Bostonians by dating local women.

A Boy Killed
On February 22, 1770, an 11-year-old boy, Christopher Seider, was killed when a customs office informant fired into an angry mob. The bullet struck the adolescent, and Seider became a martyr to the cause.

Five More Killed
More martyrs soon followed. Not even two weeks later, on March 5, agitated crowds again roamed the streets of Boston. An argument broke out between a local merchant and Private Hugh White, the British officer on duty at the Customs House. In response to the man's taunting, the soldier struck him with the butt of his rifle. The man screamed. A crowd gathered and began to lob coal, ice, and oyster shells at White. Church bells began to toll -- the signal that all able men were needed to fight a fire -- and colonists poured into the street. When reinforcements arrived under the command of Captain Thomas Preston, the mob turned its fury on the eight new soldiers, jeering and taunting them. Private Hugh Montgomery was hit with a wooden club. A shot was fired. Captain Preston, who had not issued an order to fire, tried to restore peace. But it was too late. There were five new martyrs to the colonists' cause: Crispus Attucks, Samuel Gray, Samuel Maverick, James Caldwell, and Patrick Carr.

A Call to Action
Sensing the potential for propaganda, Samuel Adams, John Adam's cousin and a leader of the revolutionary movement, immediately christened the event the "Boston Massacre." The bloody event galvanized the colonists, helping to swing sentiment away from reform and reconciliation and toward revolution. Paul Revere immortalized the incident in an engraving that depicted the mighty struggle of freedom-loving people.

The Right to a Fair Trial
The problem of holding a trial -- or, more accurately, securing a defense -- for the British soldiers loomed. After short but careful consideration -- he feared that he might put his and his family's personal safety at risk and jeopardize his legal practice -- John Adams accepted the case on the grounds that in a free country, no man, no matter what his alleged crime, should be denied the right to counsel or a fair trial. There were two trials: In the first, Captain Preston was tried and acquitted. It had been impossible to prove that he had issued an order to fire into the crowd. In the second, six of the eight soldiers were acquitted, and the two who were found guilty (it was proved they had fired their weapons) had their thumbs branded as punishment. No riots followed the not-guilty verdicts, as had been feared, and Adams' law practice did not suffer his part in the trial.

Virginia's Colonial Capitol

We will move to the late colonial period of American history next week. Here's what the capitol building of the Virginia colony looked like after the capital had moved from Jamestown to Williamsburg.

The House of Burgesses of the Virginia colony met here (a "burgess" was a representative of a borough or district) from 1699 through 1776--though for seven years they were forced to meet at nearby William and Mary College while the capitol was rebuilt after burning down. Capital operations moved to Richmond, far inland, in 1779.

The second capitol's west wing was demolished and its bricks were sold off in 1793, and the east wing burned in 1832.

The picture below shows a reconstruction of those colonial buildings. 

By the way, "capitol" means the government's central building; "capital" means the city where government is based. One letter can make quite a difference.

Colonial Crafts: Video Links

Before industrialization, how did people work and make needed products? These videos show recreations of several kinds of American colonial crafts. All are just a few minutes long.

A blacksmith:  https://youtu.be/Y2gPg26PkrI

A cook:  https://youtu.be/jOWpzR0b6Ko

A spinner/weaver:  https://youtu.be/ex1Atx1tQPk (yes, she has a Scottish accent; so would many immigrants of the colonial period)

A printer:  https://youtu.be/perc_FZmtxU

A quiz question (not for extra credit) might appear about these items.

King Philip's War

What follows is a brief account of King Philip's war, a devastating conflict between New England colonists and several native groups. King Philip was the name used by colonists for Metacomet, the leader of the Wampanoag Indians. The source is history.net which provides good background reading on many topics.

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In 1675, some 55 years after English separatists later known as the Pilgrims had founded Plymouth Colony (in present-day Massachusetts), newsletters began appearing in London describing horrible atrocities committed by Indians against the New England settlers. The reports told of lightning raids on towns by hundreds of warriors, barns and houses burned to the ground, farmers tomahawked in their fields, colonial militia columns wiped out in ambushes, women and children taken captive, and worse.

While some questioned the veracity of the initial reports, the unrest quickly flared into a broad and bloody armed conflict. Known today as King Philip’s War (after the primary Indian war leader), the conflict stretched from 1675 to 1678 and was the subject of several important Puritan works, among them the Rev. William Hubbard’s The History of the Indian Wars in New England From the First Settlement to the Termination of the War With King Philip in 1677; Benjamin Thompson’s “New England’s Crisis,” the first epic poem written in North America; and the Rev. Increase Mather’s A Brief History of the War With the Indians in New England. The war has intrigued historians ever since.

King Philip’s War was not a localized clash like the Pequot War of the 1630s but full-scale warfare involving most of the New England region and many of the indigenous tribes, a total war that made no distinctions between warriors and civilians. And it was not certain the colonists would win. The war ended the largely stable and, in many ways, mutually beneficial relationship between colonists and Indians that had endured some five decades.

It was also an especially bloody war—the bloodiest, in terms of the percentage of the population killed, in American history. The figures are inexact, but out of a total New England population of 80,000, counting both Indians and English colonists, some 9,000 were killed—more than 10 percent. Two-thirds of the dead were Indians, many of whom died of starvation. Indians attacked 52 of New England’s 90 towns, pillaging 25 of those and burning 17 to the ground. The English sold thousands of captured Indians into slavery in the West Indies. New England’s tribes would never fully recover.

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For the complete article:  http://www.historynet.com/blood-and-betrayal-king-philips-war.htm

More Answers, "Foods of the Americas"

In class the first section (Foods Familiar or Semi-Familiar to the First Europeans) was covered, as was the last (Three Items Not Used, indicating a few of the foods Europeans introduced into the Americas).

The point, by the way, is that foods--and animals not used for food, and ideas, and technology, and diseases--traveled in both directions across the Atlantic after Europeans started showing up and coming back. This is often called the Columbian Exchange, after Columbus but most of it happened well after his life time. He died in 1506, just fourteen years after his first voyage.

Here are the other two categories, all filled in.

Foods Unfamiliar to the First Europeans

amaranth, avocado, cocoa (chocolate), corn, manioc (cassava), papaya, peanut, peppers, pineapple, potato, quinoa, sunflower, sweet potato, tomato, vanilla

Foods Imported from Africa in the Early Colonial Period

black-eyed peas, eggplant, okra, rice, sesame seeds, sorghum, watermelon, yam

A few notes of explanation:

• amaranth is cooked like a grain and can be found at Whole Foods and other alt-grocery stores; it was developed in the highlands of Mexico and Central America
• most Americans see manioc (cassava) in the form of tapioca
• quinoa is cooked like a grain and can now be found at nearly all grocery stores; it was developed in the Lake Titicaca region of South America and is related to amaranth
• sweet potatoes originated in the Caribbean region; they are not the same thing as yams, a distinct species from Africa
• imagine Italian food without tomato sauce; that's all of it before the early 1500s
• sorghum is found on grocery shelves in America as molasses, but this grain is used in many parts of the world for both human and livestock consumption
• okra shows up in Southern cooking (which is true of the other African imports as well); you'll find okra sliced into rounds in gumbo, but it is also served on its own--sliced, dipped in egg and cornmeal, and fried; you might also find it pickled in jars on the shelves next to the more familiar cucumber pickles

Where Did Columbus Go?

The map below shows his four voyages. At no point did he set foot on what would later be U.S. soil, but he did see much of the Caribbean and parts of the coast of Central and South America.

Despite that, the capitals of Ohio and South Carolina are named for him, as are the District of Columbia and the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest. “Columbia” is also an old nickname for the United States in addition to the name of a republic in South America.

Given his mixed legacy, the celebration of Columbus Day (Oct. 12) has diminished in the United States. Some want to change that day, still a holiday for some schools, state governments, and banks, to Indigenous Peoples Day to commemorate the Arawak (Taino) and others who suffered from European exploration and colonization

A Powhatan Home

The picture below is from a state historical park in Virginia, and shows what historians and archaeologists think a typical Powhatan home looked like inside. Can you guess or surmise what the objects shown were for? Imagine the real John Smith and Powhatan inside one of these structures. Then, mentally scoff at the Disney film. Go ahead. It's fun!

Sneak Preview of Next Week

Among other things, we'll meet this man whose last name is still used for a major city in North Carolina and a brand of pipe tobacco. Why was he interested in founding a British colony? Money.

Who Made This?

The Serpent Mound in Ohio dates from no later than 1070 CE (Common Era, which historians use instead of A.D., indicating the number of years since the year traditionally designated for the birth of Christ). In fact, it might be much older. Historians and archaeologists continue to debate the evidence.

That means the Serpent Mound was at minimum centuries old when Columbus and other Europeans arrived in the Western Hemisphere and kept coming back.

Who built this amazing effigy (the term for a raised pile of earth used to depict an animal)? It's just three feet high but is 1,348 feet long, and is composed of layers of clay, ash, and rocks, with soil on top. Physical evidence indicates that long before Columbus, someone repaired it because it was already old and its condition had degraded.

Who made it? Centuries later, who repaired it? What people believed that the enormous amount of labor needed to construct it had value, and was that value religious or astronomical or political or some combination?

We'll hint at the answers when we cover another ancient site next week, Cahokia (near the present-day city of St. Louis).

For now, please consider how interesting things were in North America for a long time before Columbus ever showed up.